If we consider the fact that the sea linked localities together, while forests, mountains, and uninhabited land divided them from one another, the division between the three Scandinavian countries becomes quite logical. Jutland, the islands around it, and the low, cultivated land across Øresund became Denmark, whereas the long coast from the arctic regions to the lands around Oslofjorden became Norway. Sweden could not be controlled from the coast, but instead developed around the great lakes, Vänern and Vättern in the west and Mälaren in the east. Sweden was then separated from Denmark by forest and thinly inhabited land north of Scania. Typically, the most contested area was the coastline between present-day Oslo and Øresund, the meeting-place between all three countries.
Erken Dönem Viking Toplum Yapısı
As in the rest of Europe in the early Middle Ages, land was not particularly valuable in itself. What was most important was control over the people who worked the land. Moreover, chieftains needed subordinates not only to cultivate the land, but also to serve them as warriors, both as participants in Viking expeditions and in conflicts with other chieftains. Thus, even if early-medieval society was neither democratic nor egalitarian, there are reasons to believe that it was less hierarchical than it later became. The magnates were more numerous and less wealthy and the social distance between them and the rest of the people was not as great.
İskandinavya’da Tarım
Because of its climate and terrain, large parts of Scandinavia pose problems for agriculture. The Scandinavian countries are situated between around 54 and 70 degrees north, thus forming the northernmost part of Western Christendom. In addition to being far north, large parts of Scandinavia are also highland, particularly in Norway, and to some extent also in northern Sweden. However, because of the Gulf Stream, the climate is far warmer than in any other part of the world at this latitude—by as much as 5 to 7 degrees C. Thus, it is possible to grow grain at around 70 degrees north in Norway.
Kuzey Denizi’ndeki Akıntı Sistemleri
The North Sea off the east coast of England is influenced by two systems of current. The first is driven by the Atlantic currents … [which] travel in an anti-clockwise direction from the north-east corner of Scotland, down the coast towards the Wash. At the same time, the second system of currents from the Channel pushes up from the south-east coast of Kent, also in an anti-clockwise direction, pulling water eastwards along the Continental coast. When the Channel current system emerges into the open water between the coast of the East Midlands and the west coast of Denmark, it forces the weakened Atlantic currents northwards, creating a new anti-clockwise current towards the south-west coast of Norway.
Rahiplerin Evliliği Sorunu
The second chief vice concerning church reformers, clerical marriages and fornication, was referred to as nicolaitism. The term derived from the Nicolaitans, a heretical sect accused of sexual promiscuity referred to in the book of Revelation (2:6, 2:14–15). The eleventh-century reformers, in turn, used the term Nicolaites to refer indiscriminately to married clergymen, clerics who kept concubines or frequented prostitutes, and, in general, to all monks, priests, or other members of the clergy who were in any way sexually active. A resurgence in calls for clerical celibacy can be seen as early as the 1022 synod of Pavia held jointly by Pope Benedict VII and Emperor Henry II. There, all women were excluded from the houses of priests, and married clergy, including bishops, were deposed. The children and possibly the wives of clerics were to become serfs of the cleric’s manor. Behind such legislation lay a concern regarding the loss of church property to the families of priests.
Erken Hristiyanlıkta Köleliğe Yaklaşım
Christian religious teachers, like some of their pagan counterparts, particularly among the Stoics, affirmed that slavery was unnatural, and that in an ideal world all human beings ought to be free. Since this present terrestrial world was far from ideal, however, both the law and the practice of early Christian communities sought to limit the exploitation of slaves, rather than to abolish an institution so central to the society and economy of their age. Christian law, although it did not attack the institution of slavery, did insist that Christians must treat their slaves humanely and admonished owners to make every effort to provide for the religious needs of their slaves.
Laud’un Baskısı ve Püritenlerin Göçü
Separation from the Church of England, however, was far too drastic for the vast majority of Puritans. They remained hopeful for some alternative to schism. All grounds for hope in earthly rulers appeared to vanish in 1625, however, when Charles I followed his father, James, to the English throne. James had his theories about the divine right of kings; Charles was determined to put them into practice. No law and no parliament would restrain him. To make matters worse in the eyes of the Puritans, his wife, Henrietta Maria, was a French Roman Catholic princess. To enforce his will upon the Puritans, Charles found a ready servant in Archbishop William Laud, who believed that God had ordained bishops to govern his church. Led by the archbishop, an episcopal party arose to resist the Puritans. With the king’s support they reintroduced stained glass windows, crosses—even crucifixes. They elevated the Communion table and called it an altar and they insisted that worship be conducted according to the Book of Common Prayer and no other. Laud’s high-minded and high-handed policy drove some Puritans toward Separatism and others across the Atlantic to America. Within ten years after Laud became archbishop, twenty towns and churches had sprung up in Massachusetts Bay: in all sixteen thousand people, including the four hundred who heard John Cotton’s farewell at Southampton.
Püritenlerin Amerika’ya Göçü ve Mayflower
Sweeping aside English institutions and ignoring the mood of the English people, James made it plain that he meant to be an absolute monarch. In 1611 he dissolved Parliament and for the next ten years ruled England without it. Thus the leaders of the Puritans and the advocates of parliamentary authority in England tended to merge in their resistance to royal power. Some in the Puritan movement, however, grew impatient for change in the church. Shortly after the Hampton Court Conference, little groups of believers began to meet for worship as they felt the Bible taught them—not according to bishops and prayer books. They were determined to obey God even if their nation’s leaders were not. We call this movement Separatism because the groups were intent on leaving, separating from, the Church of England. One of these groups was in the village of Scrooby in northern England. Another was not far away at Gainsborough. By 1608 both congregations had moved to Holland for safety and freedom of worship. The Scrooby group settled at Leyden; the Gainsborough group found a home in Amsterdam. After ten years in Holland, the Scrooby congregation, led by Pastor John Robinson, realized that their children were growing up out of touch with their homeland, forgetting even their native tongue. But to return to England meant a return to the evil ways of English society. They had heard of the English colony in Virginia planted in 1607. Perhaps the new continent of America was their answer. It was a daring thought, full of unknown terrors, but a small number was willing to try. These returned to England, where they were joined by another group of like-minded pilgrims. In September 1620 a company of about a hundred souls set sail from Plymouth in a ship called the Mayflower. In November the crew sighted the rocky shore of New England. The Pilgrim Fathers stepped ashore at what we call Plymouth, Massachusetts.
Atı Tanrı Sanan Yerliler
Native Americans were eager enough to accept the Christian faith, but they were just as ready to abandon it. Between 1524 and 1531 the Franciscans baptized more than a million Mexicans. The practice of mass baptisms had the same effect as mass conversions in northern Europe in the early Middle Ages: conversion because of coercion and conformity, and ignorance and superstition regarding Christian symbols. One well-known story has it that Cortes left the strictest instructions in one town that the citizens were to worship the Christian God and to care for one of his horses, which was lame. The natives faithfully obeyed. They fed the horse fruit and flowers until it died; they supposed that the horse and the Christian God were the same. Later two Franciscans discovered that the natives had made an image of the horse and were worshiping it as the god of thunder and lightning.
Hanedan Evliliklerinin Geniş Etkisi
The movement Wyclif launched continued in England under restrictions but found an even greater opportunity for expansion in Bohemia. The two nations were linked in 1383 by the marriage of Anne of Bohemia and King Richard II of England, so students of both countries went back and forth between Oxford and Prague. The Wyclif revolt met greater success in Bohemia because it was joined to a strong national party led by John Hus.